Difference between revisions of "Cleveland Browns"

Revision as of 19:17, 9 December 2017

The generalised chemical structure of polyisocyanurate showing the isocyanate group. The polyols are abbreviated as R-groups.

Polyisocyanurate, also referred to as PIR, polyiso, or ISO, is a thermoset plastic^[1] typically produced as a foam and used as rigid thermal insulation. The starting materials are similar to those used in polyurethane (PUR) except that the proportion of methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) is higher and a polyester-derived polyol is used in the reaction instead of a polyether polyol. The resulting chemical structure is significantly different, with the isocyanate groups on the MDI trimerising to form isocyanurate groups which the polyols link together, giving a complex polymeric structure.

Manufacturing

The reaction of MDI and polyol takes place at higher temperatures compared with the reaction temperature for the manufacture of PUR. At these elevated temperatures and in the presence of specific catalysts, MDI will first react with itself, producing a stiff, ring molecule, which is a reactive intermediate (a tri-isocyanate isocyanurate compound). Remaining MDI and the tri-isocyanate react with polyol to form a complex poly(urethane-isocyanurate) polymer (hence the use of the abbreviation PUI as an alternative to PIR), which is foamed in the presence of a suitable blowing agent. This isocyanurate polymer has a relatively strong molecular structure, because of the combination of strong chemical bonds, the ring structure of isocyanurate and high cross link density, each contributing to the greater stiffness than found in comparable polyurethanes. The greater bond strength also means these are more difficult to break, and as a result a PIR foam is chemically and thermally more stable: breakdown of isocyanurate bonds is reported to start above 200 °C, compared with urethane at 100 to 110 °C.

PIR typically has an MDI/polyol ratio, also called its index (based on isocyanate/polyol stoichiometry to produce urethane alone), higher than 180. By comparison PUR indices are normally around 100. As the index increases material stiffness the brittleness also increases, although the correlation is not linear. Depending on the product application greater stiffness, chemical and/or thermal stability may be desirable. As such PIR manufacturers can offer multiple products with identical densities but different indices in an attempt to achieve optimal end use performance.

Uses

File:PIR Panels 02.JPG

Polyisocyanurate insulation boards

PIR is typically produced as a foam and used as rigid thermal insulation. Its thermal conductivity has a typical value of 0.16 BTU·in/(hr·ft²·°F) (0.023 W/(m·K)) depending on the perimeter:area ratio.^[2] PIR foam panels laminated with pure embossed aluminium foil are used for fabrication of pre-insulated duct that is used for heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. Prefabricated PIR sandwich panels are manufactured with corrosion-protected, corrugated steel facings bonded to a core of PIR foam and used extensively as roofing insulation and vertical walls (e.g. for warehousing, factories, office buildings etc.). Other typical uses for PIR foams include industrial and commercial pipe insulation, and carving/machining media (competing with expanded polystyrene and rigid polyurethane foams).

Effectiveness of the insulation of a building envelope can be compromised by gaps resulting from shrinkage of individual panels. Manufacturing criteria require that shrinkage be limited to less than 1%Template:Citation needed (previously 2%Template:Citation needed). Even when shrinkage is limited to substantially less than this limit, the resulting gaps around the perimeter of each panel can reduce insulation effectiveness, especially if the panels are assumed to provide a vapor/infiltration barrier. Multiple layers with staggered joints, ship lapped or tongue & groove joints greatly reduce these problems.

Health hazards

PIR insulation can be a mechanical irritant to skin, eyes, and upper respiratory system during fabrication (such as dust). No statistically significant increased risks of respiratory diseases have been found in studies.^[3]

Fire risk

File:PIR board fire test.webm

PIR board fire test

PIR is at times stated to be fire retardant, or contain fire retardants, however these describe the results of "small scale tests" and "do not reflect [all] hazards under real fire conditions";^[4]Template:Better source the extent of hazards from fire include not just resistance to fire but the scope for toxic byproducts from different fire scenarios.

A 2011 study of fire toxicity of insulating materials at the University of Central Lancashire's Centre for Fire and Hazard Science studied PIR and other commonly used materials under more realistic and wide-ranging conditions representative of a wider range of fire hazard, observing that most fire deaths resulted from toxic product inhalation. The study evaluated the degree to which toxic products were released, looking at toxicity, time-release profiles, and lethality of doses released, in a range of flaming, non-flaming, and poorly ventilated fires, and concluded that PIR generally released a considerably higher level of toxic products than the other insulating materials studied (PIR > PUR > EPS > PHF; glass and stone wools also studied).^[5] In particular, hydrogen cyanide is recognised as a significant contributor to the fire toxicity of PIR (and PUR) foams.^[6]

Despite this PIR insulation is generally regarded as being more fire resistant than PUR insulation.^[7]

PIR insulation board (cited as the FR5000 product of Celotex, a Saint-Gobain company) was proposed to be used externally in the refurbishment of Grenfell Tower, London, with vertical and horizontal runs of 100 mm and 150 mm thickness respectively;^[8] subsequently "Ipswich firm Celotex confirmed it provided insulation materials for the refurbishment."^[9] On 14 June 2017 the block of flats, within 15 minutes, was enveloped in flames from the fourth floor to the top 24th floor. The causes of the rapid spread of fire up the outside of the building have yet to be established.^[10] It should be noted that flames can occupy the cavity between the insulation material and the cladding, and be drawn upwards by convection, elongating to create secondary fires, and do so "regardless of the materials used to line the cavities".^[11]

References

↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}
↑ Celotex GA4000 PIR specification
↑ http://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/household/brands?tbl=brands&id=10008031
↑ Temati.com datasheet
↑ Assessment of the fire toxicity of building insulation materials - Stec & Hull, 2011; reported in Energy and Buildings jnl, 43 (2-3), pp. 498-506 (2011); doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.10.015
↑ https://firesciencereviews.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40038-016-0012-3 The Fire Toxicity of Polyurethane Foams - McKenna and Hull 2016; Fire Science Reviews, 5:3, 2016; doi:10.1186/s40038-016-0012-3
↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}
↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Celotex say FR5000 has "Class 0 fire performance throughout the product in accordance with BS 476", its "fire propagation [is] Pass" re BS 476 Part 6, and that its "surface spread of flame [is] Class 1" re BS 476 Part 7 (https://www.celotex.co.uk/products/fr5000 - link to Product Data Sheet PDF, August 2016, pp. 1 & 2).
↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}
↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}
↑ {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} section 3.3.2.

External links

Template:Commonscat

[1] {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}

[2] Celotex GA4000 PIR specification

[3] ttp://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/household/brands?tbl=brands&id=10008031

[4] Temati.com datasheet

[5] Assessment of the fire toxicity of building insulation materials - Stec & Hull, 2011; reported in Energy and Buildings jnl, 43 (2-3), pp. 498-506 (2011); doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.10.015

[6] ttps://firesciencereviews.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40038-016-0012-3 The Fire Toxicity of Polyurethane Foams - McKenna and Hull 2016; Fire Science Reviews, 5:3, 2016; doi:10.1186/s40038-016-0012-3

[7] {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}

[8] {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} Celotex say FR5000 has "Class 0 fire performance throughout the product in accordance with BS 476", its "fire propagation [is] Pass" re BS 476 Part 6, and that its "surface spread of flame [is] Class 1" re BS 476 Part 7 (https://www.celotex.co.uk/products/fr5000 - link to Product Data Sheet PDF, August 2016, pp. 1 & 2).

[9] {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}

[10] {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}

[11] {{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} section 3.3.2.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

Difference between revisions of "Cleveland Browns"

Revision as of 19:17, 9 December 2017

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@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Infobox Website
+{{Refimprove|date=October 2012}}
-| name = Postcrossing
+[[File:IsocyanurateV2.svg|thumb|The generalised chemical structure of polyisocyanurate showing the [[isocyanate]] group. The polyols are abbreviated as [[R-group]]s.]]
-| logo = [[Image:Postcrossing Project Logo.png]]
-| screenshot =
-| caption =
-| url = [https://www.postcrossing.com postcrossing.com]
-| alexa = {{DecreasePositive}} 24,432 ({{as of|2017|5|alt=May 2017}})<ref name="alexa">{{cite web|url= http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/postcrossing.com |title= Postcrossing.com Site Info | publisher= [[Alexa Internet]] |accessdate= 2014-04-01 }}</ref><!--Updated monthly by OKBot.-->
-| commercial =
-| type = Project website
-| language = English
-| registration = Yes
-| owner = Postcrossing Lda.
-| author = Paulo Magalhães
-| launch date = 14 July 2005<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/about/history |title=Postcrossing. History |publisher=Postcrossing.com |date=2005-07-14 |accessdate=2013-01-23}}</ref>
-| current status =
-| revenue =
-| slogan = "Send a postcard and receive a postcard back from a random person somewhere in the world!"
-}}
-'''Postcrossing''' is an online [[project]] that allows its members to send and receive [[postcard]]s from all over the world. The project's tag line is "send a postcard and receive a postcard back from a random person somewhere in the world!”<ref>{{cite web | last = Magalhães| first = Paulo | title = Postcrossing| url = http://www.postcrossing.com | accessdate = 2009-01-01 }}</ref> Its members, also known as '''postcrossers''', send postcards to other members and receive postcards back from other random postcrossers. Where the postcards come from is always a surprise.
+'''Polyisocyanurate''', also referred to as '''PIR''', '''polyiso''', or '''ISO''', is a [[thermosetting polymer|thermoset]] plastic<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buildingscience.com/documents/guides-and-manuals/gm-guide-insulating-sheathing/GM_Guide_Insulating_Sheathing.pdf |title=Guide to Insulating Sheathing |date=January 2007 |author=Building Science Corporation |page=6}}</ref> typically produced as a foam and used as rigid thermal insulation. The starting materials are similar to those used in [[polyurethane]] (PUR) except that the proportion of [[methylene diphenyl diisocyanate]] (MDI) is higher and a [[polyester]]-derived polyol is used in the reaction instead of a [[polyether]] [[polyol]]. The resulting chemical structure is significantly different, with the [[isocyanate]] groups on the MDI [[Trimer (chemistry)|trimerising]] to form [[isocyanurate]] groups which the polyols link together, giving a complex polymeric structure.
-Postcrossing is the union of the words "postcard" and "crossing" and its origin "is loosely based on the [[Bookcrossing]] site".<ref>{{cite web | last = 129860 | first = Sho| date = 2006-05-08 | title = Postcrossing - The Postcard Crossing Project | publisher  = BBC H2G2 | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A10726850 | accessdate = 2009-01-01 }}</ref> However, the "crossing" or exchange of postcards works in a different way. A member sends a postcard to another postcrosser and receives a postcard back from a random postcrosser. Exchanges between the same two members only occur once; although direct swaps between members happen, they are not part of the official happenings on the site. The project is completely free and anyone with an address can create an account. However, the postcards themselves and postage fees to mail them are the responsibility of each user.
+== Manufacturing ==
-By June 2015 postcrossing had more than 554,570 members in 213 different countries<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/stats/users|title=Users Stats|publisher=postcrossing.com|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref> who had registered and exchanged over 30 million postcards that have traveled over 151 billion kilometers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/stats/postcards|title=Postcards Stats|publisher=postcrossing.com|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref>
+The reaction of MDI and polyol takes place at higher temperatures compared with the reaction temperature for the manufacture of PUR. At these elevated temperatures and in the presence of specific catalysts, MDI will first react with itself, producing a stiff, ring molecule, which is a reactive intermediate (a tri-isocyanate isocyanurate compound). Remaining MDI and the tri-isocyanate react with polyol to form a complex poly(urethane-isocyanurate) polymer (hence the use of the abbreviation PUI as an alternative to PIR), which is foamed in the presence of a suitable blowing agent. This [[isocyanurate]] polymer has a relatively strong molecular structure, because of the combination of strong chemical bonds, the ring structure of isocyanurate and high cross link density, each contributing to the greater stiffness than found in comparable polyurethanes. The greater bond strength also means these are more difficult to break, and as a result a PIR foam is chemically and thermally more stable: breakdown of isocyanurate bonds is reported to start above 200&nbsp;°C, compared with urethane at 100 to 110&nbsp;°C.
-The highest concentration of postcrossing members reside (in order) in the United States, Russia, China, Taiwan, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, Finland, Belarus, Ukraine and Brazil.<ref>Postcrossing statistics page</ref> Globally, most postcrossers reside in North America, Europe, and East Asia. Of particular note, postcrossing is popular in eastern European and former-Soviet states. As of January 2012, more than a quarter of the combined total of postcards were sent from Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.<ref name="stats">{{cite web | last = Magalhães| first = Paulo | date = 2010-03-28 | title = Postcrossing Stats | url = http://www.postcrossing.com/stats | accessdate = 2010-03-28 }}</ref>
+PIR typically has an MDI/polyol ratio, also called its index (based on isocyanate/polyol stoichiometry to produce urethane alone), higher than 180.  By comparison PUR indices are normally around 100.  As the index increases material stiffness the brittleness also increases, although the correlation is not linear.  Depending on the product application greater stiffness, chemical and/or thermal stability may be desirable.  As such PIR manufacturers can offer multiple products with identical densities but different indices in an attempt to achieve optimal end use performance.
-==How it works==
+== Uses ==
-The main idea is that if a member sends a postcard he or she will receive at least one postcard back from a random postcrosser somewhere in the world.
+[[File:PIR Panels 02.JPG|thumb|350 px|Polyisocyanurate insulation boards]]
+PIR is typically produced as a foam and used as rigid thermal insulation.  Its [[thermal conductivity]] has a typical value of 0.16 BTU·in/(hr·ft<sup>2</sup>·°F) (0.023 W/(m·K)) depending on the perimeter:area ratio.<ref>[http://www.celotex.co.uk/Products/Celotex-Products/Celotex-GA4000 Celotex GA4000] PIR specification</ref> PIR foam panels laminated with pure embossed [[aluminium]] foil are used for fabrication of pre-insulated duct that is used for heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems. Prefabricated PIR sandwich panels are manufactured with corrosion-protected, corrugated steel facings bonded to a core of PIR foam and used extensively as roofing insulation and vertical walls (e.g. for warehousing, factories, office buildings etc.).  Other typical uses for PIR foams include industrial and commercial pipe insulation, and carving/machining media (competing with expanded polystyrene and rigid polyurethane foams).
-The first step is to request to send a postcard. The website will display, and send the member an e-mail with, the address of another postcrosser and a postcard ID (e.g.: US-787). The postcard ID uniquely identifies that postcard in the system. The member then mails a postcard to that postcrosser and writes the postcard ID on it. The postcrosser receives the postcard and registers it using the postcard ID that is on the postcard. At this point, the sender is eligible to receive a postcard from a different postcrosser.<ref>{{cite web | last = Crews| first = Barbara| date = 2007-07-01 | title = Random Postcards from Around the World: Postcrossing!| publisher  = about.com | url = http://collectibles.about.com/od/postcards/a/postcrossing707.htm | accessdate = 2009-01-01 }}</ref>
+Effectiveness of the insulation of a building envelope can be compromised by gaps resulting from shrinkage of individual panels.  Manufacturing criteria require that shrinkage be limited to less than 1%{{Citation needed|date=April 2013}} (previously 2%{{Citation needed|date=April 2013}}).  Even when shrinkage is limited to substantially less than this limit, the resulting gaps around the perimeter of each panel can reduce insulation effectiveness, especially if the panels are assumed to provide a vapor/infiltration barrier.  Multiple layers with staggered joints, ship lapped or tongue & groove joints greatly reduce these problems.
-Initially each member can have up to 5 postcards traveling at any single time. Every time one of the sent postcards is registered, that postcrosser can request another address. The number of postcards allowed to travel at any single time goes up the more postcards a member sends and stops at 100.<ref>{{cite web | last = Magalhães | first = Paulo| title = Postcrossing - Help - How many postcards can I send? | publisher  = postcrossing.com | url = http://www.postcrossing.com/help/how-many-postcards-can-i-send | accessdate = 2009-01-01 }}</ref>
+==Health hazards==
+PIR insulation can be a mechanical irritant to skin, eyes, and upper respiratory system during fabrication (such as dust).  No statistically significant increased risks of respiratory diseases have been found in studies.<ref>http://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/household/brands?tbl=brands&id=10008031</ref>
-The postcrossing system allows for the same two members to exchange postcards only once. By default, members will exchange postcards with countries other than their own; however, the users can decide to exchange postcards with other users in his or her own country. Users are allowed to untick the "send to repeated countries" option in their profile, however this does not guarantee no repetitions.
+===Fire risk===
+[[File:PIR board fire test.webm|thumb|350 px|PIR board fire test]]
+PIR is at times stated to be [[fire retardant]], or contain fire retardants, however these describe the results of "small scale tests" and "do not reflect [all] hazards under real fire conditions";<ref>[http://www.temati.com/images/downloads/ALGEMEEN/PIR_PUR/MSDS-PUR_PIR_EN.pdf Temati.com datasheet]</ref>{{Better source|reason=Citation is from a manufacturers data sheet|date=April 2017}} the extent of hazards from fire include not just resistance to fire but the scope for toxic byproducts from different fire scenarios.
-A small percentage of mailed postcards get lost during their travels; others may arrive with the postcard ID unreadable and are difficult to register. There are also members who become inactive while postcards are on the way to them. The system behind the website accounts for all these factors and compensates active members by attempting to reduce the difference between the number of sent and received postcards of each member.
+A 2011 study of fire toxicity of insulating materials at the [[University of Central Lancashire]]'s Centre for Fire and Hazard Science studied PIR and other commonly used materials under more realistic and wide-ranging conditions representative of a wider range of fire hazard, observing that most fire deaths resulted from toxic product inhalation. The study evaluated the degree to which toxic products were released, looking at toxicity, time-release profiles, and lethality of doses released, in a range of flaming, non-flaming, and poorly ventilated fires, and concluded that PIR generally released a considerably higher level of toxic products than the other insulating materials studied (PIR > PUR > EPS > PHF; glass and stone wools also studied).<ref>[http://clok.uclan.ac.uk/1536/1/Stec%20and%20Hull_Fire_Toxicity_of_Insulation_Materials_EnergyBuildings_2011.pdf Assessment of the fire toxicity of building insulation materials - Stec & Hull, 2011]; reported in Energy and Buildings jnl, 43 (2-3), pp. 498-506 (2011); doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2010.10.015</ref> In particular, [[hydrogen cyanide]] is recognised as a significant contributor to the fire toxicity of PIR (and PUR) foams.<ref>https://firesciencereviews.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40038-016-0012-3 The Fire Toxicity of Polyurethane Foams - McKenna and Hull 2016; Fire Science Reviews, 5:3, 2016; doi:10.1186/s40038-016-0012-3</ref>
-==Users distribution==
+Despite this PIR insulation is generally regarded as being more fire resistant than PUR insulation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Green Public Procurement Thermal Insulation Technical Background Report|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/pdf/thermal_insulation_GPP_%20background_report.pdf|website=EU Environment|publisher=Environment Directorate General of the European Commission|accessdate=25 April 2017}}</ref>
-''Last updated May 28, 2016.''
-{|
+PIR insulation board (cited as the FR5000 product of Celotex, a Saint-Gobain company) was proposed to be used externally in the refurbishment of [[Grenfell Tower fire|Grenfell Tower]], London, with vertical and horizontal runs of 100&nbsp;mm and 150&nbsp;mm thickness respectively;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbkc.gov.uk/idoxWAM/doc/Other-952368.pdf?extension=.pdf&id=952368&location=VOLUME2&contentType=application/pdf&pageCount=1 |title=Sustainability and Energy Statement. Grenfell Tower Refurbishment |date=17 August 2012 |author=Max Fordham LLP |page=6}} Celotex say FR5000 has "Class 0 fire performance throughout the product in accordance with BS 476", its "fire propagation [is] Pass" re BS 476 Part 6, and that its "surface spread of flame [is] Class 1" re BS 476 Part 7 (https://www.celotex.co.uk/products/fr5000 - link to Product Data Sheet PDF, August 2016, pp. 1 & 2).</ref> subsequently "Ipswich firm Celotex confirmed it provided insulation materials for the refurbishment."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/jun/15/experts-warned-government-against-cladding-material-used-on-grenfell |title=Experts warned government against cladding material used on Grenfell |author=The Guardian |date=15 June 2017}}</ref> On 14 June 2017 the block of flats, within 15 minutes, was enveloped in flames from the fourth floor to the top 24th floor. The causes of the rapid spread of fire up the outside of the building have yet to be established.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://twitter.com/hendopolis/status/875103845965287424|title=Disaster in 15 minutes |author=The Times |date=15 June 2017}}</ref> It should be noted that flames can occupy the cavity between the insulation material and the cladding, and be drawn upwards by convection, elongating to create secondary fires, and do so "regardless of the materials used to line the cavities".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.probyn-miers.com/perspective/2016/02/fire-risks-from-external-cladding-panels-perspective-from-the-uk/ |title=Fire Risks From External Cladding Panels – A Perspective From The UK |date= January 2016 |author=Probyn Miers}} section 3.3.2.</ref>
-|-
-|
-{| class="wikitable sortable"
-|+ Countries with most users <ref name="countries">{{cite web |title=Countries in Postcrossing |url=https://www.postcrossing.com/explore/countries |website=Postcrossing |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6hqI2Vjpl?url=https://www.postcrossing.com/explore/countries |archivedate=28 May 2016 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref>
-|-
-! Ranking
-! Country
-! Users
-|-
-|1.
-|{{RUS}}
-|76,440
-|-
-|2.
-|{{TWN}}
-|67,359
-|-
-|3.
-|{{CHN}}
-|58,313
-|-
-|4.
-|{{USA}}
-|57,976
-|-
-|5.
-|{{GER}}
-|45,094
-|-
-|6.
-|{{NLD}}
-|37,550
-|-
-|7.
-|{{POL}}
-|28,672
-|-
-|8.
-|{{BLR}}
-|25,130
-|-
-|9.
-|{{UKR}}
-|24,193
-|-
-|10.
-|{{FIN}}
-|19,326
-|-
-|11.
-|{{CZE}}
-|17,045
-|-
-|12.
-|{{GBR}}
-|13,088
-|-
-|13.
-|{{FRA}}
-|11,287
-|-
-|14.
-|{{CAN}}
-|8,674
-|-
-|15.
-|{{JPN}}
-|8,151
-|}
-|
-{| class="wikitable sortable"
-|+ Countries with most sent postcards <ref name="countries" />
-|-
-! Ranking
-! Country
-! Sent postcards
-|-
-|1.
-|{{GER}}
-|4,876,247
-|-
-|2.
-|{{RUS}}
-|4,025,093
-|-
-|3.
-|{{USA}}
-|3,635,575
-|-
-|4.
-|{{NLD}}
-|3,206,159
-|-
-|5.
-|{{FIN}}
-|2,554,294
-|-
-|6.
-|{{BLR}}
-|1,683,814
-|-
-|7.
-|{{TWN}}
-|1,621,621
-|-
-|8.
-|{{CHN}}
-|1,608,770
-|-
-|9.
-|{{UKR}}
-|1,217,030
-|-
-|10.
-|{{POL}}
-|1,022,271
-|-
-|11.
-|{{CZE}}
-|822,018
-|-
-|12.
-|{{JPN}}
-|760,167
-|-
-|13.
-|{{GBR}}
-|704,825
-|-
-|14.
-|{{FRA}}
-|625,021
-|-
-|15.
-|{{CAN}}
-|576,306
-|}
-|}
-==History==
+== References ==
-The idea for the project was created by Paulo Magalhães, who started the site on July 14, 2005. The motivation was based on the fact that he liked to receive mail, especially postcards.<ref>{{cite web | last = Faxon | first = Hilary | date = 2008-07-17 | title = Interview: Paulo Magalhães, Founder of Postcrossing.com | publisher  = shanghaiist.com | url = http://shanghaiist.com/2008/07/17/interview_with_postcrossing_founder.php| accessdate = 2009-01-01 }}</ref> “The element of surprise of receiving postcards from different places in the world (many of which you’d probably never have heard of) can turn your mailbox into a box of surprises – and who wouldn’t like that?”<ref>{{cite journal | last = Widmer | first = Laurent | year = 2008 | title = Where is your postcard? | url = http://www.upu.int/union_postale/2008/en/1.pdf | journal = Union Postale | pages =  | accessdate = 2009-01-01}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
+{{Reflist}}
-The project started initially as a hobby for Magalhães, but its unexpected success revealed that the idea was more popular than he ever predicted. He initially hosted the project on an old computer housed in a clothes closet at his home; this setup quickly was shown to be insufficient. Based on word of mouth, the project quickly expanded over the Portuguese borders where the project was developed.
-Over time the project received attention from the media which contributed to its growth and popularity. Postcrossing reached its first million exchanged postcards on April 11, 2008 and has since grown even more rapidly.<ref>{{cite web | last = postcrossing.com | date = 2008-04-11 | title = Postcrossing Hits 1 Million Exchanged Cards | publisher  = prlog.org | url = http://www.prlog.org/10063670-postcrossing-hits-1-million-exchanged-cards.html | accessdate = 2009-01-01 }}</ref> It reached the second million on February 26, 2009, with a postcard that traveled from Germany to Norway.<ref>{{cite web | last = postcrossing.com | date = 2009-02-26 | title = 2 million received postcards! YAY! Can you believe it? | url = http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2009/02/26/2-million-received-postcards-yay-can-you-believe-it | accessdate = 2009-03-02 }}</ref> The third million was reached on September 24, 2009 with a postcard traveling from Finland to Slovenia.<ref>{{cite web | last = postcrossing.com | date = 2009-09-25 | title = One, two, three! 3 million postcrossing postcards! | url = http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2009/09/24/one-two-three-3-million-postcrossing-postcards | accessdate = 2009-09-26 }}</ref> The fourth million was reached on March 28, 2010 with a postcard traveling from the Czech Republic to the Netherlands.<ref>{{cite web | last = postcrossing.com | date = 2010-03-28 | title = 4 000 000 postcards!! :D       | url = http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2010/03/28/4-000-000-postcards-d | accessdate = 2010-03-28 }}</ref> The popularity of the site has led to the academic community exploring what makes postcrossing so successful and what other digital communication technologies can learn from that success.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Understanding Participation and Opportunities for Design from an Online Postcard Sending Community|url = http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/2317956.2318041|publisher = ACM|journal = Proceedings of the Designing Interactive Systems Conference|date = 2012-01-01|location = New York, NY, USA|isbn = 978-1-4503-1210-3|pages = 568–571|series = DIS '12|doi = 10.1145/2317956.2318041|first = Ryan|last = Kelly|first2 = Daniel|last2 = Gooch}}</ref>
-Postcrossing.com celebrated its five-year anniversary on July 14, 2010 with a photography contest for its members.<ref>{{cite web | last = postcrossing.com | date = 2010-07-14 | title = 5 years and counting | url = http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2010/07/13/5-years-and-counting | accessdate = 2010-07-14 }}</ref> Shortly after celebrating their fifth birthday, Postcrossing.com reached 5,000,000 postcards received on August 24, 2010 with a postcard traveling from Isle of Man (registered under an Italian member) to Thailand.<ref>{{cite web | last = postcrossing.com | date = 2010-08-24 | title = 5000000 postcards received! | url = http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2010/08/24/5000000-postcards-received | accessdate = 2010-08-24 }}</ref>  The 7,000,000th postcard was sent on April 4, 2011 from China and received on April 19, 2011 in the Netherlands.<ref>[http://forum.postcrossing.com/viewthread.php?tid=55338 Postcrossing post 7,000,000th card] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110502125755/http://forum.postcrossing.com/viewthread.php?tid=55338 |date=May 2, 2011 }}</ref> The 10,000,000th postcard travelled from Japan to Germany and was registered on January 27, 2012;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2012/01/27/10-000-000-registered-postcards |title=10,000,000 registered postcards! |publisher=Postcrossing.com |date=2012-01-27 |accessdate=2013-01-23}}</ref> the 15,000,000th postcard travelled from Germany to Italy and was registered on December 31, 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2012/12/31/15-000-000-postcards-registered |title=15,000,000 postcards registered! |publisher=Postcrossing.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-23}}</ref> At the moment, 1,000,000 postcards are registered in about 2 months. In January 2017 the number of postcards passed 39 million.
-{| class="wikitable sortable"
-|-
-! Date !! Time (UTC) !! Million postcards !! From !! To
-|-
-| April 11, 2008 || 4:00&nbsp;p.m. || 1 || {{TUR}} || {{ROM}}
-|-
-| February 26, 2009 || 6:30&nbsp;a.m. || 2 || {{GER}} || {{NOR}}
-|-
-| September 24, 2009 || 4:10&nbsp;p.m. || 3 || {{FIN}} ||{{SLO}}
-|-
-| March 28, 2010 || 11:20&nbsp;a.m. || 4 || {{CZE}} || {{NED}}
-|-
-| August 24, 2010 || 8:00&nbsp;p.m. || 5 || {{ITA}} || {{NOR}}
-|-
-| December 30, 2010 || 12:00&nbsp;p.m. || 6 || {{SPA}} || {{GER}}
-|-
-| April 19, 2011 || 7:00&nbsp;p.m. || 7 || {{CHN}} || {{NED}}
-|-
-| August 2, 2011 || 11:30&nbsp;a.m. || 8 || {{FIN}} || {{JPN}}
-|-
-| November 3, 2011 || 7:00&nbsp;a.m. || 9 || {{CHN}} || {{RUS}}
-|-
-| January 27, 2012 || 4:50&nbsp;p.m. || 10 || {{JPN}} || {{GER}}
-|-
-| April 3, 2012 || 9:10&nbsp;p.m. || 11 || {{USA}} || {{ISL}}
-|-
-| June 12, 2012 || 7:30&nbsp;p.m. || 12 || {{USA}} || {{NED}}
-|-
-| August 22, 2012 || 6:10&nbsp;a.m. || 13 || {{HKG}} || {{ RUS}}
-|-
-| October 25, 2012 || 9:50&nbsp;p.m. || 14 || {{NED}} || {{HND}}
-|-
-| December 31, 2012 || 1:46&nbsp;p.m. || 15 || {{GER}} || {{ITA}}
-|-
-| March 4, 2013 || 8:21&nbsp;a.m. || 16 || {{UKR}} || {{RUS}}
-|-
-| May 1, 2013 || 0:21&nbsp;a.m. || 17 || {{RUS}} || {{AUS}}
-|-
-| July 3, 2013 || 5:53&nbsp;a.m. || 18 || {{FIN}} || {{TWN}}
-|-
-| September 2, 2013 || 3:08&nbsp;a.m. || 19 || {{UKR}} || {{GER}}
-|-
-| October 28, 2013 || 10:50&nbsp;p.m. || 20 || {{USA}} || {{TWN}}
-|-
-| December 23, 2013 || || 21 || {{NED}} || {{ITA}}
-|-
-| February 17, 2014 || || 22 || {{NED}} || {{POL}}
-|-
-| March 29, 2014 || || 23 || {{GER}} || {{AUS}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Postcrossing Project|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/postcards/DE-3043747|title=Postcard DE-3043747 (Germany)|work=Postcrossing.com|date=2014-04-10|accessdate=2014-04-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|user=postcrossing|author=Postcrossing Project|number=454211922511290368|date=10 April 2014|title=Here's the lucky postcard #23,000,000:}}</ref>
-|-
-| May 31, 2014 || || 24 || {{LAT}} || {{JAP}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Postcrossing Project|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/postcards/LV-150063|title=Postcard LV-150063 (Latvia)|work=Postcrossing.com|date=2014-05-31|accessdate=2014-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|user=postcrossing|author=Postcrossing Project|number=476282527377027072|date=10 June 2014|title=Here it is, lucky postcard number 24 million, which traveled 8,084 km from Latvia to Japan in 8 days! :D}}</ref>
-|-
-| August 10, 2014 || 11:02&nbsp;a.m. || 25 || {{NED}} || {{GER}}<ref>{{cite web|author=Postcrossing Project|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/postcards/NL-2612179|title=Postcard NL-2612179 (Netherlands)|work=Postcrossing.com|date=2014-08-10|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2014/08/10/25-million-postcards|title=25 million postcards!|author=Postcrossing Project|date=2014-08-10|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref>
-|-
-| October 10, 2014 || || 26<ref>{{cite tweet|user=postcrossing|author=Postcrossing Project|number=520420202367156225|date=10 October 2014|title=We just reached 26 million postcards! Congratulations everyone! It's still #WorldPostDay in many places: what a nice way to celebrate it! :)}}</ref> || ||
-|-
-| June 2, 2015 || || 30<ref>{{cite web|author=Ana (meiadaleite)|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2015/06/02/30-million-postcards|work=Postcrossing blog|title=30 Million Postcards!|date=2015-06-02|accessdate=2015-06-02}}</ref> || {{GER}} || {{POR}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/postcards/DE-4221494|title=Postcard DE-4221494 (Germany)|date=2015-06-02|accessdate=2015-06-02|author=Postcrossing Project|work=Postcrossing.com}}</ref>
-|-
-| February 13, 2017 || 6:39&nbsp;a.m. || 40 || {{TWN}} || {{FRA}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2017/02/13/40-million-postcards |title=40 Million Postcards! |date=2017-02-13|accessdate=2017-04-04|author=Postcrossing Project|work=Postcrossing.com}}</ref>
-|}
-==Postcrossing-themed stamps==
-[[File:Stamp of Russia 2015 No 1911 Postcrossing.jpg|thumb|160px|I &#x2764; postcrossing. <small>Russian Post, 2015</small>]]
-[[File:51-2013-12-11-m.jpg|thumb|left|160px|[[Belarus]]ian postcrossing-themed stamp]]
-On October 11, 2011, PostNL released the first set of Dutch Postcrossing-themed stamps at the philatelic exhibition Postex in Apeldoorn.<ref>{{cite web|title=Postcrossing stamp launch|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2011/10/17/postcrossing-stamp-launch-postnl-contest|website=Postcrossing.com}}</ref> The sheet of 10 stamps was designed by communication agency [[The Stone Twins]], and depicted different types of postcards seemingly strewn about (as if scattered on a doormat).<ref>{{cite web|title=The Postcrossing stamp launch|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2011/10/12/the-postcrossing-stamp-launch|website=Postcrossing.com}}</ref>
-Finland was the second country to follow suit, with [[Itella]] launching their own stamps in honor of Postcrossing on September 9, 2013. Designed by [https://web.archive.org/web/20170221005515/http://www.kokoromoi.com/ Kokoro & Moi], the set includes 4 different first-class stamps.<ref>{{cite web|title=New Postcrossing stamps... from Finland!|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2013/05/21/new-postcrossing-stamps-from-finland|website=Postcrossing.com}}</ref>
-On January 2, 2014, [[Belposhta]] also launched their own Postcrossing-themed stamps in Belarus. The stamp was designed by Inga Turlo and features the words "Happy Postcrossing" in both English and Belarusian.<ref>{{cite web|title=A new Postcrossing stamp, from Belarus!|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2013/12/24/a-new-postcrossing-stamp-from-belarus|website=Postcrossing.com}}</ref>
-On May 28, 2014, [[Guernsey Post]] launched a stamp designed by their marketing team, featuring the words Happy Postcrossing depicted over an outline of Guernsey with a smiley face, giving the "thumbs-up" to the hobby of Postcrossing.<ref>{{cite web|title=A new Postcrossing stamp... from Guernsey!|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2014/04/24/a-new-postcrossing-stamp-from-guernsey|website=Postcrossing.com}}</ref>
-On January 27, 2015 the [[Russian Post]] issued a stamp designed by Olga Shushlebina. The stamp features the words “Я &#x2764; посткроссинг” ([[Russian language|Russian]]: “I &#x2764; postcrossing”) and schematic pictures of world sights.<ref>{{cite web|title=A new Postcrossing stamp... from Russia|url=https://www.postcrossing.com/blog/2015/01/20/a-new-postcrossing-stamp-from-russia|website=Postcrossing.com}}</ref>
-==See also==
-* [[BookCrossing]] - gift-giving community of books
-* [[Deltiology]]
-* [[Gift economy]]
-* [[QSL card]]
-* [[Real photo postcard]]
-==References==
-{{reflist|30em}}
 ==External links==
-* {{Official website}}
+{{commonscat|Polyisocyanurate insulation boards}}
-* [http://forum.postcrossing.com Postcrossing Official Forum]
+*[http://www.pima.org/ Polyisocyanurate Insulation Manufacturers Association]
-* [http://www.postcross.in Russian community of postcrossing] {{ref-ru}}
+*[http://www.polyurethane.org/s_api/sec.asp?CID=903&DID=3616 Polyisocyanurate Insulation energy savings, by Center for the Polyurethanes Industry]
-* [http://www.facebook.com/postcrossing/ Postcrossing Facebook Page]
-* [http://silvanacalabrese.blogspot.it/2014/09/la-cartolina-risorge-dalle-ceneri-con.html Article about Postcrossing appeared on "La Gazzetta del Mezzogiorno" newspaper]
-[[Category:Internet object tracking]]
+[[Category:Plastics]]
-[[Category:Postcards]]
+[[Category:Polyurethanes]]
-[[Category:Social networking services]]
+[[Category:Building insulation materials]]
+[[Category:Thermosetting plastics]]